The Consequences of the Norman Invasion

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THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST One important result of the Norman Conquest of England was the creation of many close links between England and Normandy, but that does not mean that the English were isolated from the continent before 1066. Edward the Confessor, who spent his youth in Normandy as an exile, had a great admiration for the Normans which he showed in a preference for Norman advisers and by modelling his new church at Westminster on the recently constructed abbey of Jumièges. After 1046 there were never fewer than three foreign bishops holding English sees, and for the last five years of Edward’s reign the bishop of London was a Norman and four other sees had bishops from Lorraine. English churchmen attended some of the reforming councils in France and Italy, and the requirement that each new archbishop had to collect his pallium from the pope ensured that these leaders could not escape some contact with the papal reform movement. Ealdred was, indeed, forced to surrender his bishopric of Worcester before he could obtain papal recognition of his elevation to the see of York. The English were, therefore, not unaware of the new ideas and standards that were beginning to gain support in the western church. Economically the contacts between England and the continent were even closer. Already by the early eleventh century London was one of the greatest cities in Europe and had trading links with many parts of the continent from Rouen to Germany, and there were other thriving English towns whose prosperity depended in large measure on the export of wool for the growing industry of Flanders. The merchants from Rouen, Huy, Nivelles and Liège as well as those from Flanders and Germany who are specifically mentioned in London toll regulations early in the century (p. 232) may possibly have introduced new ideas; they certainly brought much treasure, and
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