The word objective immediately brings to mind a state of actual existence, as opposed to simply ideal existence. We normally associate something like a chair or a table with objective reality, and we don’t consider it to have the same nature of existence as say ‘beauty’ or ‘parenthood’, even though most would agree that all these things ‘exist’ in one way or another. Mackie defines something being objective as ‘Being part of the fabric of the world’, i.e. it has an ontological, mind dependant existence. As a further definition, Mackie posits that an objective moral value has the quality of ‘ought-to-be-pursued-ness’, it is something one should or ought do because it contains an inherently normative aspect.
Perhaps more so than Emotivists, Prescriptivists see ethical language as fairly meaningful. They believe that the terms used are able to create absolute rules that everyone ought to follow. It would seem that ethical language is seen by many as very meaningful, although for varying reasons. However agent centred theories such as Virtue Ethics would argue that our main focus of morality should be on becoming as virtuous as possible, rather than deciding what is meant by ethical language. Therefore it would seem that perhaps morality should be more focussed on individuals’ actions rather then defining what is meant by ‘good’ and
Examine the role of conscience in Libertarianism (30 marks) Conscience can be defined as our belief on what is right and what is wrong. Butler stated that there is a principle working inside of us, it helps us “disprove or approve of actions... this principle in man is conscience”. This suggests that conscience is a final moral decision maker. In Libertarianism it is explained that we have complete freedom to act morally therefore we are morally responsible for our action. It is argued that conscience is the only true influence inside of us over our actions and that we should act with integrity and in a way that fits our principles and beliefs.
Explain the concept of moral self and personality in Libertarianism. Libertarianism is the view that we are free to act however we are morally responsible for all those actions. Moral self and personality are two important concepts in Libertarianism. Moral self is how we decide what is right and and personality is an empirical concept, it is influenced by psychological factors such as gene, society and environment. Personality and moral self explain how and why human beings make free choices.
James Rachels’ on Normative Cultural Relativism Every culture has its own customs, traditions and beliefs that dictate the actions of its citizens. Cultural relativism states that although practices and ethical beliefs differ from society to society, it must be accepted as good, relative to each respective culture’s beliefs and moral code. Rachels believes that an act that may be frowned upon in one culture may in fact be totally acceptable in another. The theory of Cultural Relativism puts in action the idea of what people believe is morally right and how it relates to the culture that it is practiced in. Morals concern what is right and wrong.
Natural law is the theory that an eternal, absolute moral law can be discovered by reason the belief that all laws and morality is constant throughout the universe and, regardless of where you are or what time zone you are in, morality stays constant. For example, murder is considered a wrongdoing in many different countries. Natural law is part of our human nature and contributes for the search of happiness and fulfilment. The reason such morality is remains constant is due to the fact that it was determined by G-d and thus cannot be changed. In order to decide whether an act is 'right' or 'wrong', the primary precepts are used for any action or deed.
Ethical issues vary from legal issues because ethical issues are individualistic and legal issues are embodied in a system that governs society. The legal system gives continuous guidance regardless of the ethical issues involves (Guido, 2010). Personal values are individual thoughts about an idea, object, or a belief. Individuals communicate their needs through values, Rassin, (2008) states that, “social science considers values a key motivator for human behavior.” Personal values are derived from family teachings, religious beliefs, and societal. “Personal values are basic motivation beliefs about desirable modes or outcomes of individual behavior” (Rassin, 2008, p. 8).
The general liberty of the people must not be in danger especially of the government power. Therefore, the judicial review plays one of the most important roles among the government even though their power might seem weak as Alexander Hamilton says. Judicial review as way of surveillance over legislature and executive branch and as protection of the people from political threats is the main factors for the necessity in the checks and balances system. Moreover, the importance of the judicial review can be proved by the fact that the judicial review establishing the
NML is seen as objectively ideal, it is something that everyone should strive for as it is an objective truth which ties in with Moral Realism, this means there are objective truths, things that we should do/should not do because they are definitely right or wrong. This then ties in with a priori ethics, which means our ethical knowledge has nothing to do with our experience or influences, it is just knowable in the universe, we just know it, this is what NML is seen as, we do not learn it, we just know it. Aquinas was very influenced by Aristotle especially his view that everything has a purpose and these purposes can be understood through looking at the natural world and through the bible which reveals the purpose for which God created man. St Paul said the moral law of God is evident from the nature of man and the world, ‘Ever since the creation of the world, his invisible nature, namely, his external power and deity, has been clearly perceived in the things that have been made’, Aquinas said God gave man reason to accomplish the purposes NML whether we believe in him or not. All humans can understand and follow NML but only the believers in God know that if they do, it will be beneficial for them beyond the
Lyotard looks at the pragmatics of narrative and scientific knowledge. He explains that knowledge and science are not synonymous. Science is a subset of knowledge that requires its statements to be based on repeatedly observable phenomena and it must be possible for them to be judged valid or not by the appointed experts. He goes on to argue that knowledge generally (unlike scientific knowledge) contains not just denotative statements of truth but also statements on ethical, aesthetical and of technical wisdom and someone with such knowledge, capable of making ‘good’ utterances, is deemed competent in their respective field. Lyotard argues that these criteria for ‘good’ utterances are culturally specific and this leads him to narrative knowledge, the ‘quintessential form of customary knowledge.’ He says that popular stories within society serve as myths to establish institutions or as legends or fables representing positive or negative models of integration into those institutions.