He is not saying to live an isolated life but to be self-sufficient within a community. Aristotle links happiness and virtue. Aristotle says, “Since happiness is a certain sort of activity of the soul in accord with complete virtue.” (Hackett 16). Aristotle claims that in order for us to achieve happiness is through a good moral character. One virtue of character Aristotle speaks about is
Intellectual virtues concern only what Aristotle describes as the rational part of the soul, whilst moral virtues involve both the rational and desiring part of the soul. Moral virtues are excellences of character, acts and feelings. Moral virtues encompass retaining passions under rational control. One is taught intellectual virtue however one is habituated to moral virtue. Accordingly, one is not born with moral virtues; however it is natural for one to acquire moral virtues by repetition of the corresponding acts.
Virtue ethics is agent-centred ethics rather than act-centred. Aristotle was an Ancient Greek philosopher and believed that everyone wants to live a full and happy life, this is known as eudaimonia. Eudaimonia is the idea of ideal happiness and it is the highest good, because we desire it for its own sake and not as a means to an end. In his book, Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle stated that we want to be good, and there is a difference to things that are good as means, and things that are good as ends. A good life is something inherently worth having, unlike justice which is worth having because it leads to a good life.
However, going back to human nature and ethics, we need to clearly define that although human nature differs among different cultures and societies, human nature must not be raped of its value for choosing good, and behaving on what brings the best solution for one’s problems in life. Everyone alive is entitled to have his or her own human nature. It is what makes them unique from everyone else. Although human nature is very broad in each individual, we must not forget that our human nature is to fulfill the best interest for ourselves and secondly, for others. For example, since human nature influences the way you think and behave, it is important that whatever you choose to do, it does not go against to how you are designed to be and become.
However, all of those Forms lead to the goal of life, the truth, the Form of the Good. Plato was largely concerned with the relationship between that which is real and empirical and that which is beyond the understanding of an ignorant, oblivious human. He stated that everything in the material world flows but all that flows is made after a Form, which is immutable and eternal. According to his theory, all humans have a duty to pursue the Good, but no one could do this successfully without philosophical reasoning, which is where his own guidance came in. As the Forms cannot be perceived by human senses, whatever knowledge we derive from the copies of that Form is uncertain.
One key influence of natural and moral law is Aristotle (384 BC-322 BC) Aristotle argued that we can discover how people should behave by studying how people do behave; observation and rational analysis of human nature is the surest foundation for judgments about it. Aristotle sees goodness in something fulfilling its nature, goodness lies in being fulfilled, flourishing, and moral wrongdoing lies in falling short, failing to fulfill human potential. One of Aristotle’s arguments is known as the ‘function argument’, in which he suggests that all human beings have a greater variety of functions than animals and plants do. Aristotle’s theory is concerned with the essence of something, when considering why an object exists, he asks the efficient cause question of ‘how did it happen?’, yet he also then asks ‘what is it for?’, which is known as the final cause, this is seen as the most important question as it relates to its purpose. His theory also concludes with the idea that perfection is reached when the object does exactly what it was invented to do.
Aristotle develops this and distinguishes between things that are good as means (for the sake of something else) and things that are good as ends (for their own sake only). Aristotle believes that our end or telos is to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing in society). Aristotle discusses the traits or virtues one who achieves eudaimonia would have and that a good human life is characterised by the virtues. Central to Aristotle’s idea is that humans should live in harmony with each other, as we are not just rational beings but also social beings. Aristotle saw two types of virtues: intellectual and moral virtues.
Aristotle views virtues as “traits that enable us to live well in communities(p. 389)” He holds the better good of the community higher than that of the individual. Each person has a purpose to excel in their community, while at the same time adding to the greater good of their community. “consider virtue, as this will perhaps be the best way of studying happiness(p. 396).” Virtue and happiness are directly related, for virtues are the way of achieving happiness. Aristotle defines a virtue as moral excellence, or goodness. In order to achieve this excellence the mean between two extremes must sought.
Utilitarianism (Utility meaning usefulness) is a theory proposed by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill that means that all actions should be directed towards achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. It is a teleological argument as it is looks at the consequences of an action determining the rightness or wrongness of an action rather than the action itself. Jeremy Bentham (1748) believes in act utilitarianism, this is a theory that states that the act that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people is the right one too choose therefore meaning it is quantitative as it is based on the quantity of happiness rather than quality. Benthams theory is based on 3 main things: 1. His view on what drove human beings and what goodness and badness was all about (he believes we are drive by pleasure opposed to pain – therefore he was a Hedonist), 2.
Because reason is the distinct capability of human beings, Aristotle contends that the ultimate good for a human being is a life lived according to virtue and in contemplation of the highest truths of the universe. Thus, Aristotle defines happiness, the ultimate end for human beings, as activity of the soul according to virtue. Aristotle's political views are completely linked to his emphasis on virtue and reason in relation to the ultimate good for a human being. We see Aristotle's inductive method at work in his account of the origin and purpose of the city. Aristotle theorizes that a city naturally comes into being as a result of physical necessity, and the natural completion of the smaller partnerships, the household and the village.