How significant was the work of reforming leaders in changing the nature of Russian government and society in the period from 1856-1964? Intentionalist historians such as Westwood, would say that the most significant factor for changing the nature of Russian government and society was the work of reforming leaders, such as Alexander II who carried out the Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861: “with the possible exception of Khrushchev, no other Russian ruler did so much to reduce the suffering of the Russian people”1. I agree with intentionalist’s views to an extent because reforming leaders did have a major impact in pushing reforms through however other factors of change must be considered. I also agree with a structuralist point of view, that the Russian people and key pressure groups like the Social Revolutionaries also played a significant part in changing the nature of Russian government and society. In addition, World War II introduced change through industrialisation, which was key to Russia’s success in the war.
During the beginning of the 1900s, there were plenty of revolutions and violence that took place. The Chinese revolution in 1911 and Russian Revolution in 1917 shared similar goals, they wanted to end the power of their current leader and establish a new one. For Russia, it was Tsar Nicholas II and for China it was the Qing Dynasty, Russia wanting a functioning communist government and Chinese revolutionaries wanted a democratic government. The first outcome is different in that China relied on agriculture to maintain its economy and Russia relied on industry to fuel its economy. The second outcome of the revolutions was that the countries were dramatically changed, two great powers were stopped and communist leaders eventually took over in the two countries.
The areas to investigate include political, economic, social and military reforms from the Russian government in order to see if they are ‘reluctant reformers’ or not. Socially, Alexander II introduced arguably the most radical reform in 1861 by emancipating the serfs and granting peasants freedom. This is by far the reform that affected the population most widely in the period – by granting this, peasants were allowed to own themselves in body and soul and could dictate their own lives as far as they could. Class bias was reduced and education was given more widely across Russia, regardless of social standing. This certainly fights against the view that Alexander II was reluctant in his reforms on the surface – however, once investigated, the limits of emancipation are clear.
It would be a great risk if travelers did not have a secure route to trade on. This brought the region great wealth from the additional Eastern European traders who brought goods, who had also not been seen in Asia since the last great dynasty. This was similar to Russia who now had safe access to trade routes to build its great cities. Safe trade brought by Mongol rule had a positive impact on the economy of Russia and China. While the Chinese already had a stable economy, the Russians did not.
For the previous few centuries whilst Western Europe had been developing Russia had been living in the middle ages and the Emancipation of the Serfs put an end to this. Also for a long period prior to Alexander II’s reign Russia had been seen as a major power but after the Crimean War came a realisation that this was not the case any longer. Another large turning point in Russian History is the creation of the Duma because it was a start towards democracy. Also it was the first time any Tsar had been forced to make concessions which paved the start towards revolutions and more power to the people. A fairly insignificant turning point is the period of Russification brought about by Alexander III.
However there are other reason which just as or more important than Trotsky’s leadership such as the ideas and sacrifices made by Lenin during the year’s 1917-1924 such as signing the harsh treaty of Brest-Litovsk and enforcing the New Economic Policy or NEP, to create economic sacrifices rather than political ones which allowed the Bolsheviks to remain in power. One way and the main way that Trotsky’s leadership of the red army was responsible for the survival of the Bolshevik government was the victory of the Civil war. In 1918 Russia was plunged into civil war when the White army, a group of pro tsarist and pro provisional government supporters attacked the Bolsheviks. However the reds won the war due the work of Leon Trotsky and his leadership of the red army. For example Trotsky organised and disciplined the army very well, he recruited ex tsarist army officers who were experienced in combat also due to his recruitment strategy membership rose from 7000 in March 1918 to 5 million in September 1920 and he also organised key victories such as the last battle between white and red forces between the 7th and 15th of November 1920.
In order to prevent the NEP tearing his Bolshevik party apart, however, Lenin introduced a “ban on factionalism”, and this stifled criticism of the NEP. I do not believe that the divisions over the NEP were the most important factor for the outcome of Stalin emerging victorious from the power struggle, as I believe that Stalin’s power base within the party, due to his power of patronage, was the most important factor in the outcome of the power struggle. I also believe that the ban on factionalism was a very important factor in the power struggle, along with Stalin’s character and introduction of the Five Year Plan (FYP). There is a lot of evidence to suggest that the divisions created within the CPSU over the issue of the NEP are the most important factor in the outcome of the power struggle between 1924-29 which eventually saw Stalin emerge as Lenin’s successor, as the policy allowed Stalin to weaken the reputation of his opponents, due to the fact that any attack from the left upon the NEP was seen as an attack upon Lenin. After Lenin’s death, it could be said that he was seen as a “God” within the CPSU, therefore, any attack upon the policy was seen as a “betrayal” to the party.
However, given the backwardness of the Russian economy particular difficulties were presented. For example Russia needed to decolonise itself and begin trading as an equal. Witte judged that Russia’s greatest task was to acquire capital for investment in industry. To raise this, Witte negotiated large loans and investments from abroad while introducing heavy taxes and high interest rates at home. At the same time as encouraging inflow of foreign capital, he limited the import of foreign goods leading to protective tariffs being set up as a means of safeguarding Russia’s young domestic industries, such as steel production.
How far did the introduction of Western Style reforms and the use of foreigners assist Peter the Great in strengthening his absolute rule? Peter the Great was influenced by the instability in Russia he had witnessed in Childhood, and was determined to expunge the subversive element of his population which could precipitate a resurgence of this anti-authoritarian violence. Further aims included the unification of Russia, extension of territory and its defence against the Poles, Tatars and Swedes. This required securing his absolutism, as internal security is a prerequisite of an effective foreign policy. Although foreigners and western-style changes did not cover the entire scope of his developments, they certainly appear to have been a fundamental
Governmental agencies became involved in the steamboats with Fulton and Livingston when their Monopoly took over waterways, restricting the travel up and down the Hudson Years after the Civil War saw major technological industrialization and advances like the railroad. The technological advances made it possible to start America's westward expansion and economic development by connecting the frontier with the industrial, financial, and political centers of the East . Americans began to rely upon technological advancements like the railroad, electrical power, and telephone systems for economic and/or social growth and development. Shortly following the same groups of inventors took on land travel. By putting strong constantly modified steam engines in the first