This study was on an African tribe in Zaire. In this tribe, infants are breast fed by many different women. Despite diffrences in rearing techniques infants still have a primary attachment figure. In some cultures, it was believed that the feeder was the primary attachment figure and this study showed that it isn’t true. The aim of Takahashiâs controlled observation was to see if the strange situation, was appropriate to use for Japanese infants and whether it was a true reflection of their attachment.
Outline and Evaluate Cultural Variations of Attachment Researchers have used the strange situation to investigate secure and insecure attachment in different cultures. A meta-analysis by Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg of 32 studies carried out in eight countries found some evidence of cultural differences (74% of Swedish infants were securely attached compared to just 50% of Chinese infants). Despite the observed differences between cultures, the researchers also found considerable consistency in patterns of secure and insecure attachment across the different cultures. Which suggests that it is likely that the same caregiver’s interactions have contributed to these patterns of secure and insecure attachment in different cultures. The problem with Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is that it was from a western perspective, so whats considered normal to a western culture isn’t the same as what an eastern culture would see as normal.
Outline (AO1) Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg (1998) carried out a meta-analysis of this findings from 32 studies of attachment behaviour, adding to 2000 strange situations in 8 different countries. They found that variation of attachment types was Salk between countries and that secure attachment was the most common classification. Insecure avoidant was generally the next most common, apart from in Israel and Japan where insecure resistant was the most popular. They also found that variation within the cultures was 1.4 times greater than the variation between cultures. Therefore, the conclusions of their study was that most infants are similar to the USA, where secure attachment was the most common type.
Only 40% of them were securely attached, 49% of them were anxious and avoidant, and the remaining 11% were anxious and resistant. Grossman et al said that in German infants, behaviours corresponding to ‘secure attachment’ appear to German parents to be the hallmarks of ‘spoiled babies’. This is a demonstration of cultural differences in child rearing practices resulting in different attachment type perceptions. Japanese infants showed a different pattern of attachment than the other groups. Takahashi
Tip Although babies start eating solids by 6 months, they may still need to be caressed while going to sleep. Some babies also need comfort nursing to induce sleep. If you see your sleepy-eyed munchkin crying even after being fed and changed, chances are - He/she needs comfort nursing! 10 to 12 Months The awake time is considerably increased at this age. By this time, most babies take just 1-2 naps a day, which last for 1-2 hours and they sleep for about 10-12 hours through the night.
In 2006, the proportion of mothers with newborns that were in the workforce was at 57% (“Working Parents”, 2012). That number increased to 61% in 2008 (“Working Parents”, 2012). There are many single working mothers who have not finished High School or received a GED. This leads to problems down the road. Thirty percent of teenage girls who have dropped out of school listed pregnancy or parenthood as the primary reason (“Teen Pregnancy Prevention”, n.d.).
(1990, 1995) found that 80% of abused and maltreated infants in their sample exhibited disorganized attachment styles. [111][112] Disorganized attachment is associated with a number of developmental problems, including dissociative symptoms,[113] as well as depressive, anxiety, and acting-out symptoms. [114][115] "Attachment is an active process- it can be secure or insecure, maladaptive or productive. "[116] Concerning developmental milestones, studies from the Colorado Adoption Project examined genetic influences on adoptee maturation, concluding that cognitive abilities of adoptees reflect those of their adoptive parents in early childhood but show little similarity by adolescence, resembling instead those of their biological parents and to the same extent as peers in non-adoptive
People also think that it could lead to an insecure attachment and lead to psychological effects on the child later in life. There are many studies which argue both sides to the effects of day care and I am now going to look at some closer. Clarke-Stewart studied 500 children and found that children in care for up to 30 hours per week were no more distressed than other children who had attended much lower hours of day care when separated from parents in the strange situation. This shows that children can form strong attachments with mothers even if they are in their 24/7 care, although the experiment could direction the other way as the experiment was only done in one area opposed to several so it lacks in population validity. Roggman et al (1994) compared infants who had attended day care in the first year with those who had remained at home and they found no difference in attachment with mothers.
Does transracial adoption affect child development? In the early 20th century most children that were adopted in the US were non-Latino white infants. Most adoptive parents were non-Latino white couples from the middle to upper class. Relaxed abortion laws and more accessible contraception decreased the amount of white babies that are put up for adoption and more diverse couples began looking at adoption as an option (Santrock 2013). Issues began to arise about whether or not transracial adoptions could hinder a childs development in any way (Bernards).
Yet children in Japan also show a high percentage of secure attachments this is due to the mothers rarely leaving their children in the care of another person and the fact that an infant’s clinginess and attention seeking behavior is seen as an indication of closeness and dependency. The Tokyo study in 1984 suggests that mothers of securely attached infants reported greater spousal support than mothers of insecurely (avoidant) attached infants (Berk, 2009). However on the other hand in Romanian Orphanages most of the children display insecure or ambivalent attachment styles due to spending their first 6 to 8 months without a primary caregiver, not creating that attachment bond and not receiving that intimate care. This then leads to problems in later childhood i.e. creating new attachment bonds, interacting with children, mental health problems and disruptive behavior.