However, increased levels of dopamine stimulated by amphetamines have shown an increase in aggression whereas antipsychotic drugs that reduce dopamine levels have been shown to reduce violent behaviour (Lavine and Buitelaar). Interestingly, a study by Couppis and Kennedy (2008) using mice, found that dopamine acts as a positive reinforcer in the response to an aggressive event. This would
Support for this theory is the effect of amphetamines. These drugs work by increasing the levels of dopamine. When the drugs given to a non- schizophrenic the individual has been found to develop schizophrenic-like symptoms, this therefore suggests that the increased dopamine levels is likely to be linked to the disorder. Furthermore patients with schizophrenia have been found to have symptoms worsen when they have taken amphetamines. Grilly had found people with Parkinson’s disease (low levels of dopamine) who were taking the drug L-dopa to raise their levels of dopamine were developing schizophrenic type symptoms.
Alcohol/drugs can increase the level of dopamine (this compensates for the lack of dopamine receptors in individuals with A1 variant of the DRD2 gene). Dopamine stimulates the receptors and thud the behaviour is maintained and the individual relapses.
Antidepressants on the other hand by balancing neurotransmitters such as serotonin and epinephrine witch can cause depression if not sufficiently balanced. Anxiolytic drugs are used to combat anxiety disorders one drug in this field is benzodiazepines (Bzs) they work by releasing more (GABA) witch slows down the nerve transmission calming people down. This drug is effective in areas such as phobias. Another biological therapy is ECT, it is a surgical based treatment commonly used on manic depressives who haven’t responded to antidepressants. This treatment is administrated to a patient by putting a patient into an unconscious state then passing a current of 0.6 amps through the brain.
They revolutionised psychiatry by allowing the most disturbed schizophrenic patients live outside a psychiatric hospital, or reduce their average length of stay. However, many critics have called these drugs pharmacological straitjackets. Some drugs are more effective in treating acute positive symptoms such s hallucination, thought disorder and delusions; they seem to work by blocking the D2 receptor of dopamine. There are two main two main drug categories; neuroleptic drugs which are the more traditional used drugs and the newer version atypical drugs. Common neuroleptic drugs such as Thorzine aim to block the activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine within 48 hours, which have proven to be effective.
There are many sectors regarding the biological maintenance of smoking, one being the ‘Nicotine regulation model’. According to the biochemistry of smoking addiction, the reason for an individual to continue smoking is due to the highly addictive substance, nicotine. Shachter argues that a smoker continues to smoke in order to maintain the nicotine levels in their body as this helps to avoid negative withdrawal symptoms such as irritability, shakes and insomnia. Many studies have been found to support this model for instance Schachter found that smokers who smoked low level of nicotine tend to smoke 25% more cigarettes than those who smoked high level of nicotine. This shows support as a high optimum level of nicotine is needed in order to avoid severe withdrawal symptoms.
After analysis of the three topics, the supporting article, "Adjunctive antidepressant treatment with quetiapine in agitated depression: positive effects on symptom reduction, psychopathology, and remission rates." by Rothermundt Matthias, and the combative article, "Psychiatric Drugs As Agents Of Trauma." by Charles Whitfield, one can verify which statements are supported to be true, and choose their side. Now the main argument of antidepressants being effective in the long-term treatment of depression vs. the placebo. In the treatment of major depressive disorder there are both arguments saying antidepressants are significantly better than the placebo, and one that say there is little effect using antidepressants compared with the placebo.
Most mental health experts agree that when depression is severe, medication can be helpful, even life saving. Other studies show that the benefits of depression medication have been exaggerated. When it comes to mild to moderate depression, antidepressants are only slightly more effective than Natural Cures. They altar chemicals in the brain like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine causing the body to be more prone to side
It is probably best to minimize the use of anti-depressants and to maximize the use of mood-stabilizing agents. Mood-stabilizing agents are used to treat manic, hypomanic and mixed episodes and are used to prevent more mood episodes. This is not the absolute way, remember, because the use of mood-stabilizing agents is used primarily to treat mania. As with the problem of taking primarily anti-depressants, rapid cycling bipolar patients who use mainly mood-stabilizing agents will have severe depressive episodes. There is a trade-off between the use of either mood-stabilizing agents or anti-depressant drugs.
(Catherine Harrison, PhD, January 10, 2008) B. Drugs that remedy or lessen effects Antipsychotic and atypical antipsychotic drugs are used to treat this disorder such as: Risperidone and Clozapine among others. C. How these drugs help These medications cannot “cure” the illness, but they can take away many of the symptoms or make them milder. In some cases, they can shorten the course of an episode of the illness as well. These medications affect neurotransmitters that allow communication between nerve cells.