Over evolutionary time, they and their DNA became integrated into the cell to form a new type of life called eukaryotes. Endosymbiosis suggests that certain organelles were once free living organisms that were taken into larger cells and the arrangement was beneficial to both organisms. First off, mitochondria and chloroplasts are similar in size and morphology to bacterial prokaryotic cells, though the mitochondria of some organisms are known to be morphologically variable. Also, mitochondria and chloroplasts divide by binary fission, just as bacteria do, and not by mitosis as eukaryotes do. Additionally, the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts are different from that of the eukaryotic cell in which they are found.
Each genome contains the information needed to maintain and create the organism. The process of genetic engineering involves extracting of a small piece of cellular DNA, called a plasmid, from the bacteria if organism involved in the manipulation. A very small section of the circular plasmid is then cut out by the restriction enzymes which act as molecular scissors. The gene from the organism being modified is then inserted into this space and the plasmid is therefore modified. The genetically modified plasmid is now inserted and introduces into a new organism which starts divides rapidly.
Species – group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring. - Competition and environmental pressures mean that individuals with inheritable traits or adaptations that are best suited to the environment will be more likely to survive and reproduce, passing these characteristics on to their offspring. Adaptation – a characteristic that increases the chances of survival and reproduction of an organism. - This process is called Natural Selection. - If the competition and environmental pressures then remain the same, the frequency of the adaptations will increase in population over many generations.
Meiosis is a type of cell division required for sexual reproduction and produces gametes or spores. During Meiosis I, DNA replication occurs and chromosomes line up on the equator as a homologous pair known as chromatids. At the first stage of Meiosis, Prophase I, DNA of individual chromosomes coils more and more tightly, known as DNA condensation. Sister chromatids then attach to specific sites on the nuclear envelope to bring the homologous pair of chromosomes close together. The sister chromatids line up so they can pair up with its corresponding "sister gene" on the homologous chromosome.
The scientific process involved requires that one takes an egg and removes the nucleus that contains DNA genes. Then they take DNA from an adult cell and place it in the egg. The adult cell is merged with the enucleated egg, or by a sophisticated nuclear transfer. Then the egg is stimulated electrically or chemically reconstructed and try to make it to divide and become an embryo. This method to produce offspring with identical genes with that of the parent can be reffered to as reproductive cloning.
The enzyme used in this step is unique to the mitochondria and therefore can be used as a marker for the presence of mitochondrial contamination in a sample of cell fraction. We can use cellular fractionation to separate the cellular components and test them for the presence of certain enzymes or chemicals (Hames). Cellular fractionation involves two steps. Firsty, we must lyse the cells from a homogenous cell population to obtain a homogenate of subcellular components. Since different cellular components vary in size and weight, we can centrifuge them at different speeds and durations to obtain pellets containing these cell fractions (Ardell).
“Therapeutic cloning creates human embryos through cloning in order to harvest their stem cells for medical research; reproductive cloning creates the embryos for human reproduction”. (Hansen 880) Both cloning procedures begins by removing the nucleus from a female egg cell and a somatic (body) cell to remove its genetic material. The nucleus of the somatic cell is then transferred to the denucleated female egg. At last, the egg is stimulated by a small amount of electricity that tricks the egg to
| Frankenstein Vs. Cloning | Do you believe humans should have the right to create life, be it human or otherwise, or alter nature? | | | Cloning which is an umbrella term for processes where scientists duplicate biological material. At the end of the 20th century, new discoveries and experiments produced the first cloned animal Dolly. Dolly caused many people worldwide to question cloning’s “ethical, religious, legal, and regulatory implications” (Human Genome). Cloning is ethical because it can save many lives and creates many jobs.
4 – Dismantles debris B. 6 – Protein synthesis C. 2 – Houses DNA D. 1 – Lipid synthesis E. 7 – Processes secretions F. 3 – Energy extraction G. 5 – Detoxification 2) Explain the functions of the following proteins: A. Tubulin and Actin – Tubulin forms microtubules, while actin forms microfilaments. B. Caspases – Caspases are responsible for apoptosis. C. Cyclins and kinases – The interaction of cyclins and kinases trigger mitosis from the inside. D. Checkpoint proteins – Checkpoint proteins are responsible for regulating the cell cycle.
(1) The virus attaches to receptor on a host cell, injecting a genetic material (RNA) and enzymes. (2) A viral enzyme transcribed the RNA in to the same form as the host cell's genetic material(DNA). (3) The viral DNA is integrated into the chromosomes on the nucleus of the host cell. This integrated DNA is called provirus (4) After a long idle period, the provirus directs enzymes in the host cells to produce new strands of viral RNA. The new viral RNA serves as blueprint.