The PP’s were shown 7 short film clips from safety films for driver education of traffic collisions. They were then asked to write an account of what they had just seen and asked to answer some specific question and the critical question which was about the speed of the vehicles in the collision. The critical question was: 'About how fast were the cars going when they ***** each other?' The 5 conditions in experiment 1 were: Condition 1: Smashed Condition 2: Collided Condition 3: Bumped Condition 4: Hit Condition 5: Contacted The dependant variable were the speed estimates given by the PP's. In experiment 2 the PP's viewed a short film clip of a multiple car accident and were questioned about it.
Keeley Gillespie Section B Essay Loftus and Palmer (1974) – Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction In the study by Loftus and Palmer, the participants were tested to see whether information supplied after an event changed the way that they recalled the details of it, or whether they recalled details to fit a schema of a previous event. The results of the study were then put into context of a car crash witness, to test if having witness testimonies to prosecute somebody for the crash that occurred are reliable sources of information, or whether the accuracy of what the human mind can recall should be used as a primary source of evidence. The whole study carried out by Loftus and Palmer included 2 different experiments to test whether it was just short term memory that leading questions affected, or whether long term memory was also affected by this factor too. Experiment 1 was the most useful in gathering the important information about how people’s minds worked, and helped Loftus and Palmer reach a conclusion about this information. In experiment 1, Loftus and Palmer gathered 45 participants from Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
In this essay, the basic characteristics of autobiographical memory will be studied, the organization and types of autobiographical memory will be discussed, the interaction between language processing and learning will be explored and issues such as infantile amnesia, the awareness of self and brain development, will be examined. To start with, memory in general could be described as a process of storing, interpreting and retrieving information and experiences. But when we talk about autobiographical memory, we refer to the memories we have about ourselves and our personal experiences and also to the information about specific situations we have come across in the past (Bauer, 2007). In psychology the organization of memory and its division into other categories, helps studying in detail the various factors that exist within it. Firstly, memory can be divided into two sections; into short – term store (STS) and long – term store (LTS).
These participants were shown seven videos of car crashes that were approximately four to thirty seconds long. These were shown to the participants randomly, in no particular order. After each video, the participants were given a questionnaire, in which they had to describe the event they had seen, and then they were asked to answer a series of questions about what they had seen
The use of the cognitive interview was encouraged by Geislemen study to set out to investigate the effectiveness of the cognitive interview. Participants watched a violent film for 48hours and were interviewed using one of three methods of interviewing techniques: the cognitive interview, a standard interview and interview using hypnosis. The number of facts recalled accurately and the number of errors were recorded. The average fact accurately recalled from the cognitive interview was 41.2, standard interview was 29.4 and hypnosis was 38.0.They concluded that the cognitive interview leads to better memory for events and witnesses are able to recall a lot more information as compared to a standard interviewing technique. Kohen et al completed meta-analysis of 53 students and found that 34% increase in correct recall using the cognitive interview when compared to a standard interview technique.
Assignment 3 – Loftus and Palmer study replication Introduction Eye witness testimony is evidence which is provided by an individual that has witnessed a crime with a viewing to identifying the person that has committed the crime. Loftus and Palmer aimed to investigate the accuracy of memory after witnessing a car accident. They were aiming to see if leading questions change the accuracy of an eye witnesses' recall. Loftus and palmer focused on people estimating the speed of moving cars. Verb used | Mean speed estimated | smashed | 40.8 | collided | 39.3 | bumped | 38.1 | hit | 34.0 | contacted | 31.8 | The table shows that the more violent the verb sounds then the more the mean speed is estimated, such as contacted is not a very violent verb and only has an estimate of 31.8 whereas the most violent verb which is smashed has a high estimate of the mean speed.
In it’s simplest definition, victimology is the study of the victim or victims of a particular offender (Wallace & Roberson 2011: 3). However, two other definitions expound deeper into victimology: (1) victimology is the study of crime victims and the psychological effects of being a victim (Def, Random House Dictionary, 2011), and (2) victimology is the study of the ways in which the behavior of crime victims may have or have not contributed to their victimization (Def, Merriam-Webster, 2011). The early works about victims were first written by criminologist, as early as the mid 1700’s. The term victimology was coined by Beniamin Mendelsohn in 1974 (Dussich, 2000). Several criminologist (Hentig, Mendelsohn and Ellenberger) examined victim-offender interactions and stressed reciprocal influences and role reversals.
Event-interviewing similarity Memory of an event such as a crime is enhanced when the psychological environment at the interview is similar to the environment at the original event. The interviewer should therefore try to reinstate in the witness’s mind the external (e.g. weather), emotional (e.g. feelings of fear) and cognitive (e.g. relevant thoughts) features that were experienced at the time.
Outline and evaluate the model of working memory In this essay I am going outline what is working memory in terms of psychology and evaluate it in terms of both advantages and limitation of the working memory model. The fact that short-term memory contains both new information and information retrieved from long-term memory has led some psychologists to prefer the term ‘working memory’ (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, 1986,1992) Working memory model is an alternative to the multi-store model; it is a far more complex explanation of short-term memory. Baddeley and Hitch argued that the short-term memory was made up of several subsystems, each of them have a specialized function, rather than the short-term memory model being a single inflexible store. According to Martin, G. N, Carlson, N.R & Buskist, W. (2006) “According to Baddeley, working memory is a short-term memory system that allows us to retain material for current use and not just for transport into long-term memory.” Baddeley suggested this short-term memory as having three independent components that allow us to store temporarily visuo-spatial material and verbal material. These components were so-called the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad and the Phonological Loop.
IIs represent a ‘‘process of cognition whereby actors imagine themselves in interaction with others ...they reflect a distinct kind of thinking in which communicators experience or actually work through cognitive representations of conversation’’ (Edwards,Honeycutt, & Zagacki, 1988, p. 24). Edwards et al. found that 40% of respondents reported IIs that focused on conflict when asked to report recent IIs. Zagacki, Edwards, and Honeycutt (1992) observed that individuals who report IIs that involve conflict have lower satisfaction with the II, perhaps because they serve to ‘‘review and rehearse the negative dimensions of actual experience’’ (p. 65) rather than to help work through the conflict to a more positive outcome. Kelly P. Wallenfelsz, Department of Speech, Carl Sandburg College.