SUBSTANCE VS NON-SUBSTANCE ADDICTION An addiction is continued involvement with a substance or activity despite any ongoing negative consequences that appear. This definition of addiction includes not only substances as in drug addiction or alcohol addiction, but behavioral addictions also, with non-substance addiction components, as with gambling, kleptomania, pyromania, or even anger (intermittent explosive disorder). Non-substance addictions are built out of a habit. Like other habits, addictive behaviors are learned behaviors that we gain through trial and error or through observing others. The pleasures of an addiction can be widespread.
Genetics can help explain addiction, the genetic explanation of addiction focuses on the fact that an individual may have gene which makes them more susceptible to pursue addictive behaviours e.g. drug taking. The A1 variant of the DRD2 gene has been linked with the initiation addiction. People with the A1 variant are said to have few dopamine receptors as a result Noble refers to the gene as the "reward gene", this is because dopamine is a neurotransmitter which we associate with reward and pleasure. Alcohol/drugs can increase the level of dopamine (this compensates for the lack of dopamine receptors in individuals with A1 variant of the DRD2 gene).
After a while, users need higher doses to get the same effect. This leads to dependence and addiction for those users of the drug. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 43 percent of ecstasy users become dependent on the drug. Users are aware of the negative consequences of ecstasy, but their dependence on it prevents them from stopping to use the drug. However, Ecstasy is used medicinally to relieve victims of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Does an individual’s acoustic startle response increase during their drug addiction or while they are in recovery. Based on this could we determine early on in an individual life if an individual lacks the acoustic startle response are they more apt to become addicted to an illegal substance. One way to understand the relationship between addiction and acoustic startle response is through integration of Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) and Psychopharmacology. PNI deals with the body’s psychobiological responses to stress. The foundation of Psychological stress has been found to be based on the lack of control and predictability.
Outline and evaluate the role of media in addictive behaviour. (25 marks) A lot of research has been conducted into the effects media have on addictive behaviour, enabling us to have a better understanding of this important influence on dependency behaviours. Much of this research focuses on social learning effects, for example Charlton (1986) found viewing cigarette advertisements made children associate smoking with looking grown up and having confidence, suggesting that media influences lead to addiction. However, the media also has positive influences on addictive behaviours, like the use of positive role models and education. Gunsekera et al.
This is because chronic exposure to the nicotine eventually results in a chronic stress situation for the addict, characterised by withdrawal symptoms. This is effective at explaining why the smoking is maintained because as the withdrawal symptoms affect the user so negatively if the substance is stopped, the addiction is maintained to avoid this negative experience. Similarly the explanation is also as effective at explaining why the addicts relapse after giving up smoking. This is because as the withdrawal symptoms are so hard to resist and lead to such a negative experience, the user eventually takes the substance again to feel better. Also as the user’s brain is expecting a pleasurable experience from the addiction, it creates difficult to resist cues that the addict finds hard to
Substance abuse can cause depression and depression can cause substance abuse. Stress is also associated with deficits in hippocampal functioning, the critical brain structure that inhibits stress reactivity and mediates contextual cues. Moreover, drug withdrawal leads to reduced hippocampal functioning via increased cortisol output (Keith, Roberts, Wiren, & Crabbe, 1995). Severity of declarative memory deficits
The two main neurotransmitters found to be linked to aggressive behaviour are serotonin and dopamine. High levels of serotonin are said to reduce aggression by inhibiting responses to emotional stimuli that might otherwise lead to aggressive behaviour. Low levels are associated with an increase in impulsive behaviour, aggression and even violent suicide. Evidence supporting the importance of serotonin in aggressive behaviour was found in research using vervet monkeys. Raleigh et al (1991) found that if serotonin levels were reduced by altering their diet, there was an increase in aggressive behaviour whereas an increase in serotonin levels resulted in a decrease in aggressive behaviour suggesting the difference in aggression was due to the serotonin levels.
Behavioral Therapies- an approach based on the principles of classical conditioning. Individual are repeatedly present with unpleasant stimulus, and they are expected to react negatively to the substance and lose the craving. Cognitive-Behavior Therapies-help people gain control over their substance-related behaviors, by making them keep track of their substance use. Biological Treatments- helps people withdraw from substances, abstain from them or simply maintain their level of use without further increase, (detoxification, drug maintenance therapy, and antagonist drugs). Sociocultural Therapies-Psychological problems emerge in a social setting and are best treated in social context.
This shows support as a high optimum level of nicotine is needed in order to avoid severe withdrawal symptoms. However one weakness surrounding this area is the issue of reductionism; the model is largely focused on the biological basis of addiction, ignoring social and environmental factors. Another weakness may be deterministic as individuals may have little or no control over their addictive behavior due to biology because some people may be genetically predisposed to their addictive behavior and therefore unable to regulate their behavior. There is also a research on biochemistry of the maintenance of smoking. Research has found that as nicotine increases dopamine release, it tends to provide a pleasurable and rewarding feeling that leads to maintenance.